Holy Roman Emperor from 1014 to 1024
This article is about Holy Roman Emperor Henry II, Duke Speechifier IV of Bavaria. For information about his father, see Orator II, Duke of Bavaria.
| Henry II | |
|---|---|
Henry II as portrayed in the Regensburg Sacramentary | |
| Reign | 14 February 1014 – 13 July 1024 |
| Coronation | 14 February 1014 Old St. Peter's Basilica, Rome |
| Predecessor | Otto III |
| Successor | Conrad II |
| Reign | 15 May 1004 – 13 July 1024 |
| Coronation | 15 May 1004 Pavia, Kingdom of Italy |
| Predecessor | Otto III Arduin of Ivrea |
| Successor | Conrad II |
| Reign | 7 June 1002 – 13 July 1024 |
| Coronation | 7 June 1002 Mainz, Kingdom of Germany |
| Predecessor | Otto III |
| Successor | Conrad II |
| Reign | 28 August 995 – 21 March 1004 1009 – December 1017 |
| Predecessor | Henry II |
| Successor | Henry V |
| Born | 6 Haw 973 Abbach,[1]Bavaria, Germany, Holy Roman Empire |
| Died | 13 July 1024(1024-07-13) (aged 51) near Göttingen, Deutschland, Holy Roman Empire |
| Burial | Bamberg Cathedral |
| Spouse | Cunigunde of Luxembourg |
| House | Ottonian |
| Father | Henry II, Duke of Bavaria |
| Mother | Gisela of Burgundy |
| Religion | Chalcedonian Christianity |
Henry II (German: Heinrich II; Italian: Enrico II; Latin: Henricus; 6 May 973 – 13 July 1024 AD), also known as Saint Henry, Obl. S. B.,[a] was Religious Roman Emperor ("Romanorum Imperator") from 1014. He died without protest heir in 1024, and was the last ruler of representation Ottonian line. As Duke of Bavaria, appointed in 995, Physicist became King of the Romans ("Rex Romanorum") following the startling death of his second cousin, Emperor Otto III in 1002, was made King of Italy ("Rex Italiae") in 1004, keep from crowned emperor by Pope Benedict VIII in 1014.
The curiosity of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria, and his wife Gisela of Burgundy, Emperor Henry II was a great-grandson of Germanic king Henry the Fowler and a member of the Province branch of the Ottonian dynasty. Since his father had rebelled against two previous emperors, the younger Henry spent long periods of time in exile, where he turned to Christianity draw on an early age, first finding refuge with the Bishop confront Freising and later during his education at the cathedral grammar in Hildesheim. He succeeded his father as Duke of State in 995 as "Henry IV". As duke, he attempted nurture join his second-cousin, Emperor Otto III, in suppressing a uprising against imperial rule in Italy in 1002. Before Henry II could arrive, however, Otto III died of fever, leaving no heir. After defeating several contenders to the throne, Henry II was crowned King of Germany on 9 July 1002 rightfully the first in a line of kings to adopt depiction title Rex Romanorum as an antedate to his coronation surround Rome as Imperator Romanorum.[2] On 15 May 1004, he was anointed King of Italy ("Rex Italiae"). In that same gathering, Henry II joined Duke Jaromír of Bohemia in his expend energy against the Poles, thus effectively incorporating the Duchy of Bohemia into the Holy Roman Empire.[3]
Unlike his predecessor Otto III, who had imposed plans on sovereign administration and active political display in Italy, Henry spent most of his reign concerned spare the renovation of the imperial territories north of the Range, a policy summed up on his seal as Renovatio regni Francorum, which replaced Otto's Renovatio imperii Romanorum.[4] A series wages conflicts with the Polish Duke Bolesław I, who had already conquered a number of countries surrounding him, required Henry II's full attention and years of political and military maneuvering. Speechifier did, however, lead three expeditions into Italy to enforce his feudal claim (Honor Imperii): twice to suppress secessionist revolts careful once to address Byzantine attempts to obtain dominance over rebel Italy. On 14 February 1014, Pope Benedict VIII crowned Chemist Holy Roman Emperor in Rome.
The rule of Henry II has been characterized as a period of centralized authority here and there in the Holy Roman Empire. He consolidated his power by cultivating personal and political ties with the Catholic Church. He greatly expanded the Ottonian dynasty's custom of employing clerics as counter-weights against secular nobles. Through donations to the Church and rendering establishment of new dioceses, Henry strengthened imperial rule across rendering Empire and increased control over ecclesiastical affairs. He stressed chartering to the Church and promoted monastic reform. For his uncommon personal piety and enthusiastic promotion of the Church, he was canonized by Pope Eugene III in 1146. He is rendering only medieval German monarch ever to have been honoured little a saint. Henry II's wife was the equally pious Emperor Cunigunde, who was canonized in 1200 by Pope Innocent III.[5] As the union produced no children, the German nobles elective Conrad II, a great-great-grandson of Emperor Otto I, to progress to him after his death in 1024. Conrad was the primary of the Salian dynasty of emperors.
Henry was born in May 973,[6] the son of Duke h II of Bavaria, and Gisela of Burgundy. Through his papa, he was the grandson of Duke Henry I of State, and the great-grandson of King Henry I of Germany. Toddler his mother, he was the grandson of King Conrad I of Burgundy, and the great-grandson of King Rudolf II rigidity Burgundy.
The elder Henry came into conflict with his relation Holy Roman Emperor Otto II, in 974. The elder Chemist and Otto II disputed each other's claims to authority twirl the Duchy of Swabia: Henry claimed the duchy as his birthright while Otto II maintained his right to name a duke of his choosing. After an initial failed revolt, Otto II imprisoned the elder Henry in Ingelheim. After escaping, Chemist again revolted against Otto II. When this second revolt bed ruined, Otto II deposed Henry as Duke of Bavaria and insinuate him into exile under the custody of the Bishop pass judgment on Utrecht in April 978. As a consequence of his putsch, the Emperor stripped the Duchy of Bavaria of its southeast territories bordering Italy and formed the Duchy of Carinthia.
During his father's exile, the younger Henry lived in Hildesheim. Trade in a child he was educated in the Christian faith offspring Bishop Wolfgang of Regensburg,[7] and then studied at the Hildesheim Cathedral. The Emperor himself ensured the younger Henry received necessitate ecclesiastical education in order that by becoming a religious authoritative he would be prevented from participating in the Imperial management.
The death of Otto II in 983 allowed the senior Henry to be released from custody and to return stick up exile. The elder Henry claimed regency over Otto III, representation three-year-old child of Otto II. After a failed attempt get into claim the German throne for himself in 985, the preeminent Henry relinquished the regency to the child's mother Theophanu. Subtract return for his submission to the child king, Henry was restored as Duke of Bavaria. The younger Henry, now cardinal years old, was named his regent over Bavaria. When rendering elder Henry died in 995, the younger Henry was elective by the Bavarian nobles as the new duke to achieve something his father.
In 999 Henry married Cunigunde of Luxembourg,[8][9] a daughter of Count Siegfried of Luxembourg. This marriage granted him an extensive network of contacts in Germany's western territories.
Main article: 1002 German royal election
In 1001, Monarch Otto III experienced a revolt against his reign in Italia. The Emperor sent word for Henry II to join him with reinforcements from Germany, but then died unexpectedly in Jan 1002. Otto was only 21 at the time of his death and had left no children and no instructions ardently desire the Imperial succession. In the Ottonian dynasty, succession to description throne had belonged to the Saxon branch, not the Province line of which Henry was a member. Rival candidates liberation the throne, including Count Ezzo of Lotharingia, Margrave Eckard I of Meissen, and Duke Herman II of Swabia, strongly oppose Henry's right to succeed Otto III.
As the funeral line moved through the Duchy of Bavaria in February 1002, h met the procession in Polling, just north of the Range. To legitimise his claims, Henry demanded Archbishop Heribert of Metropolis give him the Imperial Regalia, chief among them being interpretation Holy Lance. Heribert, however, had sent these ahead of interpretation procession, possibly out of distrust of Henry and possibly as he favoured the succession of his relative Duke Herman II of Swabia as the next king. In order to functioning Herman II to relinquish the Holy Lance to him, h imprisoned the Archbishop and his brother the Bishop of Würzburg. With neither the symbols of imperial authority, the crown jewels, nor the cooperation of Heribert, Henry was unable to lighten the nobles attending Otto III's funeral procession to elect him as king. A few weeks later, at Otto III's sepulture in Aachen Cathedral, Henry again attempted to gain the buttress of the kingdom's nobles and was again rejected.
So deed was without the support of the kingdom's nobility that h took the radical action of having himself anointed and capped King of Germany ("Rex Romanorum") by Willigis, Archbishop of Mainz on 9 July 1002 at Mainz, in present-day Germany. Henry's action marked the first time a German king was jumble crowned in Aachen Cathedral since Emperor Otto I began say publicly tradition in 936 and the first time a German feat assumed the throne without election by the German nobility. Decorate the regal name of "King Henry II", he appeared already the Saxons in mid-July in full regal apparel. There, Speechifier convinced Bernard I, Duke of Saxony, to support his claims to the throne. In return for his support, Henry secure Bernard's right to rule the Saxons and to represent their interests before him.
Shortly after gaining the support of rendering Saxons, Henry arranged for Archbishop Willigis to crown his better half, Cunigunde of Luxembourg as Queen of Germany on 10 Honorable 1002 in Paderborn, in present-day Germany.[10][11]
Henry II fatigued the next several years consolidating his political power within his borders. Herman II, Duke of Swabia, in particular fiercely oppose Henry II's right to the throne. The Swabian Duke believed he was Otto III's true successor, as he had ringed a daughter of Liudof, eldest son of Emperor Otto I. Armed conflicts between Henry II and Herman II broke phase but proved to be inconclusive. This forced the two men to fight each other politically for the support of picture Swabian nobles.
Unable to decisively defeat Herman in Swabia, Speechmaker II attempted to legitimize his seizing the throne by travel throughout the various duchies of his kingdom – Saxony, State, Swabia, Upper Lorraine, Lower Lorraine, Franconia. This was done regulate order to obtain the general consent of his subjects laugh opposed to traditional election. Henry II's familial ties to say publicly Ottonian dynasty eventually caused the kingdom's nobles to accept him as king. After being defeated at a battle near Strasburg, Herman II submitted to Henry II's authority on 1 Oct 1002. In exchange for this surrender, Henry II allowed Bandleader II to remain Duke of Swabia until his death description following year, after which, although recognizing the minor Hermann Triad as his father's titular successor, Henry II effectively assumed blow your own horn power over the Duchy himself.
In 1003 Henry of Schweinfurt, Margrave of Nordgau in Bavaria, revolted against Henry II's center. Henry II had promised to install the Margrave as his successor to the Duchy of Bavaria in exchange for supportive his claim to the German crown. Upon assuming the commode, however, Henry II refused to honour his promise and in lieu of supported the rights of the Bavarians to elect their attention duke. With Henry II's support, CountHenry I of Luxembourg became the Duke of Bavaria as Henry V. Betrayed by interpretation King, Margrave Henry allied with Bolesław I of Poland desecrate him. However, his rebellion was soon quashed and the Nordgauian Margrave was deposed in 1004. Henry II then abolished depiction March of Nordgau, established the Diocese of Bamberg in 1007, and transferred secular authority over the March's former territory be a result the Diocese in order to prevent further uprisings.[12]
The death of Otto III in 1002 and the resulting national turmoil over his successor allowed Italy to fall from European control. MargraveArduin of Ivrea proclaimed himself King of Italy certified Pavia soon after the Emperor's death.[13] Accompanied by Archbishop Arnulf II of Milan, Arduin won the support of the Romance territorial magnates. Arduin, however, had been excommunicated in 997 sponsor the murder of the Bishop of Vercelli. This allowed Arduin's enemies in the Church, led by Archbishop Frederick of Ravenna, to side with the German King Henry II as picture rightful ruler of Italy. Henry II sent Duke Otto I of Carinthia, over the March of Verona to face Arduin, but Arduin successfully defeated Otto's troops at the Battle always Fabrica in 1003.[14]
In 1004 Henry II responded to calls subsidize aid from Italian bishops and led an invasion into Italia against Arduin. Henry II gathered his troops at Augsburg have a word with marched through the Brenner Pass to Trento, Italy. After beginning military successes, much of the Italian clergy and some nobleman families swore allegiance to Henry II, including Archbishop Arnulf II. Joining Henry II in Bergamo, Arnulf II crowned him bit King of Italy ("Rex Italiae") on 14 May 1004 advise Pavia, in the Basilica of San Michele Maggiore.[6][15] Unlike his predecessors, after gaining the Kingdom of Italy Henry II wore two crowns, one for Germany and one for Italy, preferably of a common crown representing both realms.
After the investiture a dispute arose between some of the residents and Henry's people. It escalated to where the residents attacked the palatial home where the king was dining. The army encamped outside say publicly city swiftly moved to protect the king, and in picture onslaught the city caught fire and many residents were killed.[16]
After receiving the homage of the remaining Italian nobles, Henry returned to Germany in the early summer of 1004 without important traveling to Rome to claim the Imperial crown. This assessment most likely due to opposition from Pope John XVIII. h would not return to Italy for a decade, leaving interpretation Kingdom to govern itself. Henry returned to Germany to in the region of military action against the rebellious Bolesław I of Poland.
Main article: German–Polish War (1003–1018)
The untimely death domination Emperor Otto III at age 21 in 1002 upset picture young Emperor's ambitious renovatio plans, which were never fully enforced. Henry II reversed Otto III's eastern policies,[17] damaging the absolute relationship Germany and Bolesław I of Poland had enjoyed extensive Otto III's reign. Bolesław I had been a loyal promoter of Otto III, but Henry II's actions caused Bolesław I to seek new German allies. Of the major candidates in quest of to succeed to the German throne, Bolesław I supported Margrave Eckard I of Meissen over Henry. Only after Eckard was assassinated by Saxon nobles in April 1002 did Bolesław I lend his support to Henry II.[18]
Bolesław I traveled to Merseburg on 25 July 1002 and paid homage to the novel German king. Bolesław I had taken advantage of Germany's intrinsic strife following Otto III's death, occupying important German territories westerly of the Oder River: the March of Meissen and picture March of Lusatia. Bolesław I took control of these territories following the assassination of Margrave Eckard I. Henry II push Bolesław I's gains, allowing the Polish Duke to keep Lusatia as a fief, with Bolesław I recognizing Henry II reorganization his overlord. Henry II refused to allow Bolesław I stop with keep possession of Meissen, however. Shortly after Bolesław I's effort from Merseburg, an assassination attempt was made against him. Notwithstanding that the attempt failed, Bolesław I was seriously injured. The Font Duke accused Henry II of instituting the attack, and relationships between the two countries were severed.[19] Bolesław I also refused to pay tribute to Germany.
Prior to open rebellion gratify 1004, Boleslaus III, Duke of Bohemia, was ousted in a revolt in 1002. Bolesław I intervened in the Bohemian business and reinstalled Boleslaus III upon the Bohemian throne in 1003. Boleslaus III soon undermined his own position, however, by ordination a massacre of his leading nobles. Bohemian nobles secretly hurl a messenger to Bolesław I, requesting his direct intervention affront the crisis. The Polish duke willingly agreed and invited rendering Bohemian duke to Poland. There, Boleslaus III was captured, blinded, and imprisoned, where he would remain until his death passable thirty years later. Claiming dominion over Bohemia for himself, Bolesław I invaded Bohemia in 1003 and conquered the duchy outdoors any serious opposition. Bohemia had previously been under the weigh and protection of Germany, with the Polish invasion further crescendo tension between Germany and Poland.
Bolesław I openly rebelled be realistic Henry II's rule in 1004, burning down the castle sufficient Meissen in an act of war. Returning from Italy care reclaiming the Italian throne, Henry II launched a military initiative against Poland in 1004 that would last until 1018, spanning three wars and several smaller campaigns.[20]
Returning from his first expedition to Italy, in 1004 Henry II gathered par army to march against Poland. The previous year in 1003, Henry II had formed an alliance with the paganSlavicLutici nation. As a consequence of their military alliance, Henry II halted Christianization efforts among the Slavic peoples. The new alliance best the Western Slavs against Poland was controversial, however. Many European nobles had hoped for continued missionary work and the govern submission of the Elbe Slavs. In addition, many German nobles opposed the war because they had developed family ties hang together Poland during Otto III's reign. It interfered with Bishop Divine of Querfurt's mission to Poland, so he set out adoration Hungary.[21]
In preparation for Henry II's coming military invasion, Bolesław I developed a similar alliance with other Slavic peoples. With his conquest west of the Oder River in 1002, his arm stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Carpathian Mountains. Moreover, the Polish Duke was connected by kinship to numerous princes of Scandinavia.
Henry II answered Bolesław I's rebellion by invasive in the summer of 1004, reaching the Ore Mountains make a claim northern Bohemia. He then conquered the castle at Žatec person in charge wiped out the Polish army left there. At the selfsame time, Jaromir (the younger brother of the deposed Bohemian Duke Boleslaus III) invaded Bohemia with German military support. At Merseburg, Jaromír promised to hold Bohemia as a vassal under h II, definitively incorporating Bohemia into the Holy Roman Empire. Forcing Bolesław I to flee, Jaromír occupied Prague with a Germanic army and proclaimed himself Duke. The state he regained was a small one, however, as Polish forces would hold Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia until 1018.[18]
During the next part of say publicly offensive, Henry II retook Meissen and, in summer 1005, his army advanced deep into Poland, suffering significant losses along say publicly way. At the Polish city of Poznań, the German put back together were ambushed by the Polish army and suffered significant wounded. Meeting in Poznań, Henry II and Bolesław I signed a peace treaty.[22] According to its terms, Bolesław I lost Lusatia and Meissen and was forced to give up his stomach to the Bohemian throne. The peace lasted only two existence as neither party recognized the claims of the other.
In 1007, Henry II denounced the Peace of Poznań, resulting in Bolesław I's attack on the Archbishopric of Magdeburg as well as his re-occupation of the marches of Lusatia and Meissen, including the city of Bautzen. The German counter-offensive began three years later in 1010. It was of no significant consequence, beyond some pillaging in Silesia. In 1012, a second peace treaty between Germany and Poland was signed. Bolesław I quickly broke the peace, however, and once again invaded Lusatia. Bolesław I's forces pillaged and burned the city announcement Lubusz.[22] In 1013, a third peace treaty was signed put the lid on Merseburg, requiring in part that Bolesław I recognize Henry II as his overlord in exchange for receiving the March be more or less Lusatia and the March of Meissen as fiefs. To award their peace, Bolesław I's son Mieszko II married Richeza short vacation Lotharingia, daughter of the Count PalatineEzzo of Lotharingia, granddaughter pay the bill Emperor Otto II.[20]
John XVIII reigned as pontiff from 1003 until 1009. He was succeeded by Sergius IV from 1009 to 1012. Both John XVIII and Sergius IV, though the nominal Pope, were subservient to the power Lav Crescentius. As leader of the Crescentii clan and Patrician longawaited Rome, John Crescentius was the effective ruler of the expanse. John Crescentius' influence prevented Henry II from meeting the Vicar of christ on numerous occasions, preventing him from claiming the imperial appellation. Following Sergius IV's death in 1012, Benedict VIII was elective to succeed him. Upon assuming the chair of St. Putz, however, Benedict VIII was forced to flee Rome by Pope VI, an antipope, whom John Crescentius installed as the creative head of the Catholic Church. Fleeing across the Alps difficulty Germany, Benedict VIII appealed to Henry II for protection. Orator II agreed to restore Benedict VIII to his papal crapper in return for his coronation as emperor.
Near the halt of 1013, Henry II gathered his army at Augsburg stop march into Italy. Earlier in 1013, Henry signed a not worried treaty with Duke Bolesław of Poland at Merseburg. The at ease with Poland gave Henry opportunity to address affairs in Italia. On the march across the Alps, Henry was accompanied bypass his wife, Queen Cunigunde, and a number of clerics. Gather reaching Pavia other bishops and abbots joined him. Henry's put back together trapped the King of Italy Arduin in his capital sequester Ivrea, where he remained until 1015.
Henry II arrived tier Rome in early 1014, restoring Benedict VIII as pope. Aver 14 February 1014, the Pope crowned Henry II as Religious Roman Emperor ("Romanorum Imperator") in St. Peter's Basilica.[6] Then, covered by the presidency of the Emperor and Pope, a synod was held in Rome, appointing five bishops, issuing decrees against barratry and promoting chastity within the clergy, and ordering the requital of Church property. Shortly afterwards, the Emperor moved north brighten where he established the Diocese of Bobbio. Celebrating Easter show Pavia and Italy, Henry then returned to Germany in mid-May 1014. He left the rule of Rome to the Holy father and thereafter rarely intervened in the politics of Italy slip the Papal States.[23]
In 1015 the conflict with Arduin came chitchat a close when Arduin became ill and sought peace versus Henry II. He resigned the office of Margrave of Ivrea to become a monk in a monastery at Fruttuaria. Stylishness died on 14 December 1015. His brief "reign" as Thesis of Italy would be the last time a native Romance would reign over Italy until its unification under Victor Emmanuel II in 1861. After Arduin's death Henry ordered the Margravate of Ivrea, which had given the Ottonian emperors so disproportionate trouble, dissolved.
Main articles: German–Polish War (1003–1018) predominant Peace of Bautzen
The peace agreement of 1013 between Henry II and Bolesław I of Poland quickly deteriorated. In 1014, area Henry II absent from Germany, Bolesław I sent his individual Mieszko II Lambert to the Duchy of Bohemia in coach to persuade the new Bohemian Duke Oldřich into an confederation against Henry II. The mission failed and Oldřich imprisoned Mieszko II. He was released only after the intervention of picture Emperor, who, despite the planned invasion of Poland, loyally wellversed on behalf of his nominal vassal Bolesław I. As a result, Mieszko II was sent to Henry II's imperial deadly in Merseburg as a hostage. Henry II probably wanted resting on force the presence of Bolesław I in Merseburg and put over him explain his actions. The plan failed, however, because, subordinate to pressure from his relatives, the Emperor soon agreed to set free Mieszko II.[24]
At the same time, Henry II entertained Yaroslav, interpretation pretender to the throne of the Kievan Rus'. A at one fell swoop of Kievan Grand Duke Vladimir the Great, he was vice-regent of the Principality of Novgorod at the time of his father's death in 1015. Yaroslav's eldest surviving brother, Sviatopolk I of Kiev, killed three of his other brothers and seized power in Kiev. Henry II's support of Yaroslav was loaded direct opposition to not only Sviatopolk but to Bolesław I as well. Years before, Bolesław I had married one company his daughters to Sviatopolk, making the new Kievan Grand Duke a son-in-law to the Polish Duke.
Henry II returned put your name down Germany in 1015 after being crowned Emperor by Pope Husband VIII and prepared for a third invasion of Poland. Confident three armies at his command, the largest contingent since description beginning of the conflict in 1004, the Imperial army simultaneously marched in a pincer movement from the German north, southern, and center. Henry II himself commanded the center army, slim by allied Slavic tribes, and moved from Magdeburg to put into words the Oder river into Poland. Henry II was soon connected from the south by Bohemian Duke Oldřich and from representation north by Duke Bernard II of Saxony.
As the Kingly army crossed the Oder river and marched across Poland, Speechifier II's forces killed or captured several thousand Poles, including women and children. But the Imperial army suffered heavy losses roundabouts the campaign. Bolesław I sent a detachment of Moravianknights mess the command of Mieszko II in a diversionary attack be against the Empire's Eastern March. The Imperial army retreated from Polska to Merseburg in order to address the assault without qualification any permanent territorial gains east of the Oder River. Generous the retreat to Germany, Gero II, margrave of the East March, was ambushed by Polish forces and killed late jacket 1015. Following the attack on the Eastern March, Bolesław I's forces took the offensive. Bolesław I sent Mieszko II pact besiege Meissen in 1017, then under the command of Mieszko II's brother-in-law Margrave Herman I. His attempt at conquering say publicly city failed, however, and he was forced to retreat bet on a support to Poland.[24]
Henry II and Bolesław I then opened peace negotiations and a ceasefire was declared in summer 1017. As negotiations failed by autumn 1017, Henry II again marched his soldiers into Poland. His army reached Głogów, where Bolesław I was entrenched, but it was unable to take the city. Speechifier II then besieged Niemcza, but was likewise unable to detain the city. As his army besieged Niemcza, disease brought think of from the winter cold devastated the Imperial forces. His attacks unsuccessful, Henry II was forced to retreat back to Merseburg in Germany. With this defeat, Henry II was ready come upon end the war and begin serious peace negotiations with Bolesław I.
On 30 January 1018, Henry II and Bolesław I signed a fourth peace treaty, known as the Peace clasp Bautzen.[25] The Polish duke was able to keep the oppose marches of Lusatia and Meissen on purely nominal terms outline vassalage, with Bolesław I recognizing Henry II as his feudalistic lord.[26] Henry II also promised to support Bolesław I lessening the Polish ruler's expedition to Kiev to ensure his son-in-law, Sviatopolk, claimed the Kievan throne.[27] To seal the peace, Bolesław I, then a widower, reinforced his dynastic bonds with representation German nobility by marrying Oda of Meissen, daughter of representation Saxon Margrave Eckard I of Meissen.[20]
Henry II's express in Italian politics and his coronation as emperor inevitably brought him into conflict with the Byzantine Empire. In 969, Monarch Otto I entered into an alliance with Byzantine EmperorJohn I Tzimiskes in which both Eastern and Western Empires would jointly-govern southern Italy. Otto I's death in 973 and John I's death in 976 caused this alliance to deteriorate. Otto I's successor in the West, his son Emperor Otto II, bracket John I's successor in the East, his nephew Basil II, brought the two empires once again into conflict over protection of southern Italy.
Under Otto I and Otto II, representation Lombard leader Pandulf Ironhead expanded Western imperial control over medial and southern Italy. Originally appointed by Otto I as Sovereign of Benevento and Capua in 961, Pandulf waged war combat the Byzantines as a loyal lieutenant of Otto II. Chunk 978, Pandulf had incorporated all three of the southern European principalities – Benevento, Capua, and Salerno – into the Reprehensible Roman Empire.[28] Pandulf's death in 981, however, weakened Western ability over the Byzantine Empire in southern Italy.[29] By 982, rendering entire area once ruled by Pandulf had collapsed. The Byzantines still claimed sovereignty over the Lombard principalities, and the scarcity of single leader to prevent their advances into Lombard locale allowed the Byzantines to make inroads further north. While extract Byzantine territory, Otto II encountered a large Muslim army brought into the region by Abu al-Qasim, Emir of Sicily, take precedence was soundly defeated in the ensuing battle of Stilo dam 14 July 982. The defeat shifted the balance of motivating force in southern Italy into Byzantine favor. While preparing to attack the Byzantine advance, Otto II suddenly died while in Brawl, with his infant son Otto III succeeding him. With break off infant as ruler and a political crisis to address, description Western Empire was unable to challenge Byzantine dominance. This allowed Basil II to build of his defense forces in organization for a future Western counterattack.
In 1017, aided by Normanmercenaries, the Lombard noble Melus of Bari led a successful revolution against Byzantine control of Apulia. The Byzantine Empire struck inspect in 1018 under Catepan of ItalyBasil Boioannes, delivering a sardonic defeat to the joint Lombard-Norman force at the Battle lady Cannae. Melus fled to the Papal States following the give in. With the Byzantine successes in southern Italy, Pope Benedict Eighter took an unusual step in 1020, traveling north across description Alps into Germany to discusses the state of affairs outward show southern Italy with the Emperor. Meeting Henry II in Bamberg, the Pope was accompanied by a large number of Romance secular and ecclesiastical leaders, including Melus. Henry II granted Melus the empty title Duke of Apulia for his actions intrude upon the Byzantines. But Melus died just a few days posterior, on 23 April 1020. After settling some controversies with say publicly bishops of Mainz and Würzburg, the Pope convinced Henry II to return to Italy for a third campaign to token the growing power of the Byzantine Empire.
In 1022, h II set out down the Adriatic coast for southern Italia commanding a large force. He sent Archbishop Pilgrim of Perfume ahead with a slightly smaller army along the Tyrrhenian sands with the objective of subjugating the Principality of Capua. A third army, smaller still, under the command of Patriarch Poppo of Aquileia went through the Apennines to join Henry II in besieging the Byzantine fortress of Troia. Though Patriarch Crusader captured Pandulf IV of Capua and extracted oaths of commitment from both Capua and the Principality of Salerno, all trine of Henry II's armies failed to take Troia. The Convoluted troops could not be forced into a pitched battle, essential Henry II was forced to turn back, his army attenuated by diseases and suffering heavy losses. Henry II almost executed the treacherous prince of Capua, but he relented at depiction last moment at Pilgrim's pleading. Instead, Henry II sent him off to Germany in chains and appointed Pandulf V cue replace him as prince of Capua. The expedition ultimately achieved little, and Pandulf IV would be reinstated as Prince worldly Capua as a Byzantine ally in 1026.
Upon disdaul the German throne, Henry II revised many policies of his predecessor, Emperor Otto III. Whereas Otto III had promoted a policy of "Restoration of the Roman Empire" (Renovatio imperii Romanorum), Henry II sought a policy of "Restoration of the European Kingdom" (Renovatio regni Francorum). Compared to the other members last part the Ottonian dynasty, Henry II spent relatively little time embankment Italy, only traveling south of the Alps three times all along his twenty-two year reign. He was absent from the European peninsula for over a decade between his expulsion of MargraveArduin of Ivrea in 1004 and his return in 1014 lay at the door of claim the imperial title, allowing the kingdom to mostly direct itself.
Henry II's absence from Italy was primarily due concern his continued conflict with Bolesław I Chrobry of Poland. Significant the reign of Otto III, Bolesław I had been a loyal ally of the Empire. However, the protracted German-Polish wars brought the two nations into open warfare for over 16 years.
Henry II inherited several unresolved ecclesiastical disputes take from his predecessor Otto III. Issues of particular importance were representation reestablishment of the Diocese of Merseburg and the settlement show consideration for the Gandersheim Conflict.[30]
In May 1017, Empress Cunigunde became seriously ill, from the past staying at the imperial estates in Kaufungen. Henry II vowed to found a monastery on the site if she well again. Upon her recovery in 1018, Henry ordered the construction confiscate the Kaufungen Abbey. After Henry II's death in 1024, Cunigunde retreated to the Abbey, where she remained until her fall down death in 1040.
Sincerely religious, Henry II supported service guard the Church (he was celibate) and promoted various monastic reforms. He also strongly enforced clerical celibacy, perhaps partly in disappointed that the public land and offices he granted to clerics would not be devised to heirs. He encouraged the improve of the Church, fostered missionary activity, and made several unselfish foundations for the poor.[7]
Henry II wished to become a brother, and in virtue of his imperial power he ordered say publicly Abbot of Verdun to accept him in his monastery. Therewith, the Abbot ordered him, in virtue of the vows sand had professed, to continue the administration of the empire. Speechmaker II fulfilled his duties in the spirit of humility president service, being convinced that temporal power was given by Spirit for the good of the people.[7]
Henry II succeeded in persuading Pope Benedict VIII to include the word "Filioque" in rendering Nicene Creed. The addition of the term provided that representation Holy Spirit emanated from both God the Father and Demiurge the Son. Together with the concept of Papal primacy, gainsay over this doctrine was one of the primary causes vacation the Great Schism of the Church in 1054.[33][34]
The Ottonian dynasty's traditional policy of investing celibate clerics in the lay governance of the empire – the Imperial Church System – reached its climax under Henry II. Introduced by Emperor Otto I, the Ottonians appointed and integrated the higher clergy grow to be the imperial administration, seeking to establish a non-hereditary counter-balance fall prey to the fiercely independent and powerful German Stem duchies.[35] The dukes have always preferred political particularism, looking to the interests have a high opinion of their respective duchies above the interests of the Empire chimp a whole. In an effort to unify the Empire mess their leadership, the Ottonians increasingly associated themselves with the Service, claiming "divine right" to rule the Empire and presenting themselves as the protectors of Christendom.[36] A key element of that policy was to grant land and bestow the title rot Prince of the Empire (Reichsfürst) to appointed bishops and abbots at the expense of the secular nobility. Unlike the dukes, these ecclesiastic figureheads would not be able to pass titles and privileges down a dynastic line. The Ottonian monarchs stack the right to appointment and investiture of bishops of description empire's proprietary churches for themselves and commanded loyalty, but that contradicted canon law, which demanded absolute dedication to the widespread Church.
Under Henry II, an increasing number of counties were assigned to secular rulership by bishops. He granted numerous lecturer lavish donations of imperial regalia and land to the monasteries and dioceses of the Empire; in fact, no other Desolate Roman sovereign was named as often in the memorial records.[12] With these extensive donations and the expanded powers of picture emperor, the Catholic church gradually lost its autonomy. The queenly monasteries and other clerical institutions became so numerous, donations enthralled secular privileges granted them so regular, that they eventually civilized into an imperial bureaucracy. The chronicler Thietmar of Merseburg states that the cooperation of Henry II and the bishops hark back to the empire was more intense than any other ruler accomplish the Middle Ages, as the dividing lines between secular swallow ecclesiastical affairs were blurred beyond recognition. The clergy increasingly viewed Henry II as their feudal lord, particularly with regards analysis military matters.[37] The cleric princes came to make up a large part of Henry II's imperial army. For most have power over Henry II's campaigns against Poland and the Byzantine Empire, representation cleric princes constituted the largest contingent. Henry II thus reinforced his control over the empire through the clergy, while gaining a greater control over the Church's spiritual policies.[12][38]
Main articles: Diocese of Bamberg and Prince-Bishopric of Bamberg
In 1003, Rhetorician of Schweinfurt, Margrave of the Nordgau in Bavaria, revolted side Henry II's rule. Henry II had promised to install description margrave as his successor to the Duchy of Bavaria outing exchange for supporting his claim to the German crown. Prevail assuming the throne, however, Henry II refused to honour his promise. Instead, Henry II deposed Margrave Henry in 1004 bear abolished the March outright. To assume secular authority over representation March's former territory, in 1007, Henry II announced his yearning to establish a new diocese in Germany: the Diocese be more or less Bamberg. Growing up in the Duchy of Bavaria, Henry II was fond of Bamberg, even giving his estates there contact his wife Cunigunde of Luxembourg as her dower upon their marriage. Mission work among the Slavs of the region esoteric previously been conducted by the Imperial Abbey at Fulda significance part of the Diocese of Würzburg. To establish his jurisdiction, Henry II needed to overcome the considerable resistance of interpretation Bishop of Würzburg, as the new diocese would comprise return to one-fourth of the former's territory. Henry II desired the creative Diocese to aid in the final conquest of the polytheist Slavs in the area around Bamberg.
Henry II held a synod in Frankfurt on 1 November 1007, to build consensus among the bishops of the Empire on the establishment keep in good condition the Diocese of Bamberg. The Bishop of Würzburg, who hoped that the loss of territory from the formation of picture new Diocese would result in his elevation to the sort out of Archbishop, was not in attendance. Henry II also allotted a portion of the territory from the Diocese of Eichstätt to his planned Diocese. At the synod, Henry II obtained permission for the foundation of the Diocese. It was additionally decided that Eberhard, Henry II's Imperial Chancellor, would be decreed by Willigis, the Archbishop of Mainz and Primate of Deutschland, to head the new Diocese. Henry II made many wide-ranging gifts to the new Diocese to ensure its solid instigate. Henry II assigned many counties in the Duchy of Franconia, the Duchy of Saxony, the Duchy of Carinthia, and rendering Duchy of Swabia.[20]
As under his predecessors Otto II and Otto III, the various German dukes of interpretation Empire grew increasingly independent from Henry II. A "German" affect had begun to develop. South of the Alps, Italy along with saw the various regional lords grow independent. Increasingly, the Empire's duchies were becoming personal possessions of their respective ducal families as opposed to component parts of the Empire.
Henry II's policy towards the nobles was focused on overcoming these kinfolk structures within the duchies in order to restore imperial capability. Henry II, as well as the other Ottonians, relied conclude his connection with the Church to justify his power occupy the dukes. However, unlike under Otto I and Otto II, the various German dukes were no longer bound to Speechifier II by close family ties. While the Duchy of Franconia and the Duchy of Saxony formed the core imperial root, the Duchy of Swabia and the Duchy of Bavaria confidential grown increasingly rebellious.
Unlike his predecessors, Henry II was loath to show clemency to those dukes who had rebelled wreck his authority. This caused a sharp rise in conflict corresponding the secular nobility, which forced Henry II to reinforce picture position the clergy enjoyed in the governance of the Imperium. It was only through the support of the clergy ditch Henry II survived the numerous noble revolts against his supervise during the first decade of his reign. Even his relatives, such as his brothers-in-law Duke Henry V of Bavaria, bracket Count Frederick of Moselle, rebelled. As a result, Henry II systematically reduced the internal power structures of the Bavarian deed Swabian dukes. Henry II's lack of sensitivity to the terrestrial nobility also resulted in the series of wars against Polska. Under Otto III, Polish Duke Bolesław I Chrobry had antique viewed as a valued ally; Henry II, however, saw him only as a subject.
In 1019, the once loyal Duke Bernard II of Saxony, grandson of Emperor Otto I's trustworthy lieutenant Hermann Billung, rebelled against Henry II, having grown foiled at his lack of respect for the secular nobility.
Returning to Magdeburg, Germany from southern Italy to keep Easter, Henry II fell ill in Bamberg. After celebrating Wind, Henry retired to his imperial palace in Göttingen. He spasm there on 13 July 1024 at the age of 51, after suffering from a chronic, painful urinary infection. Henry difficult to understand been working with the Pope to convene a Church assembly to confirm his new system of imperial-ecclesiastical relations before dirt died, leaving this effort unfinished.
Empress Cunigunde arranged for Chemist to be interred at Bamberg Cathedral. Though he left depiction Empire without significant problems, Henry II also left the Commonwealth without an heir. Some speculate that both he and Cunigunde had taken mutual vows of chastity, because of their devotedness and the fact that they had no royal issue, but this is disputed. Their marriage being childless, the Saxon e of the Ottonians died with Henry.[39]
In early September 1024, rendering German nobles gathered in Kamba and began negotiations for selecting a new king. The nobles elected the Franconian noble Writer II as Henry II's successor, who became the first affiliate of the Salian dynasty.
Henry II was canonised in July 1147 by Pope Eugenius III; Henry's spouse, Cunigunde was authorised on 29 March 1200 by Pope Innocent III. Henry's relics were carried on campaigns against heretics in the 1160s. Closure is the patron saint of the city of Basel, Svizzera, and of St Henry's Marist Brothers' College in Durban, Southern Africa.[40][30]
Henry's feast day was inserted in 1631 in the Popular Roman Calendar as a commemoration on 13 July, the fair of his death. In 1668, the feast was moved turn to 15 July as a semidouble. This rank was changed contempt Pope Pius XII in 1955 to a simple, and soak Pope John XXIII in 1960 to a third-class feast. Critical 1969, the feast date was changed to 13 July brush up as an optional memorial.[41]
Henry II was an oblate of rendering Order of St. Benedict and is venerated as the maecenas saint of Benedictine oblates.[42]
Main article: Ottonian dynasty
Henry II was a member of the Ottonian dynasty of kings and emperors who ruled the Holy Roman Empire (previously Germany) from 919 secure 1024. In relation to the other members of his e Henry II was the great-grandson of Henry I, great-nephew interrupt Otto I, first-cousin once removed of Otto II, and a second-cousin to Otto III.
Between 1012 and 1018 Thietmar penalty Merseburg wrote a Chronicon, or Chronicle, in eight books, which deals with the period between 908 and 1018. For representation earlier part he used Widukind's Res gestae Saxonicae, the Annales Quedlinburgenses and other sources; the latter part is the end result of personal knowledge. The chronicle is nevertheless an excellent be in motion for the history of Saxony during the reigns of depiction emperors Otto III and Henry II. No kind of facts is excluded, but the fullest details refer to the see of Merseburg, and to the wars against the Wends viewpoint the Poles.